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Continued from previous page
Fevers generated in the Black Hole at Calcutta
The case of Mrs. Howitt and others, who escaped from the Black Hole in Calcutta: and were afterwards seized with the fever, which was generated during their confinement and the seeds of which they carried with them, is a proof of the first part of this position; and the second will be equally certified by the relation of one of the most striking instances of the kind on record, which happened on the 11th of May 1750, at the Old Bailey. The prisoners were kept for nearly a whole day in small, ill ventilated and crowded apartments; some of them laboured under jail fever; when they were brought into Court. The windows, at the end of the Hall opposite to the place where the Judges sat, were thrown open, the people on the left of the Court, on whom the wind blew, were infected with the fever while those on the opposite side escaped. The Lord Chief Justice, and the Recorder, who sat on the Lord Mayor's right hand escaped, while the Lord Mayor and the rest of the bench, which sat on his left, were seized with the distemper. Many of the Middlesex Jury, on the left side of the Court, died of it, whilst the London Jury, who sat opposite to them, received no injury. But why should we go so far back and quote cases in proof on that of which we have got a melancholy instance before our eyes. In the transport Surry, the Poison was generated by the close confinement of the convicts in the prison. It diffused its malignant influence through every part of the ship and spared none who came within the sphere of its action.
Prevention of contagion
To prevent the generation of this subtle, malignant and indescribable poison, every effort should be directed, and that it is possible in, perhaps, every instance of bringing convicts from England to this country, the numerous examples of those arriving in health, having lost few or none on the passage render it extremely probable, if not quite certain. In this point however, it is to be regretted that those ships, which are those subjects of this investigation, have most miserably failed. Whether this failure arose from timidity, ignorance or inattention to their duty, this is certain, that had they intended to have favoured the propagation of contagion, and to have given full force to its virulence, they could not have devised a more effective plan for their purpose.
Conditions provocative of contagion on the transport Surrey
It is recorded above, that 20 or 21 of the Convicts, composing one of the nine divisions, into which the whole were formed with fourteen privileged persons were admitted on deck in their turn, when the weather and the duties of the ship would permit; And it is no where recorded, either in the surgeon's or ship's journal that the convicts were at any time, from their first embarkation to the period of their arrival in this port, all on deck at once hence it follows that 165 persons, or nearly that number, were locked up in the prison or hospital. The word ventilation never once mentioned; No provision of Windsails, The Store is removed at an early stage of the voyage; the bedding was never once brought on deck. Here is a combination of circumstances favouring the generation of contagion, without one rationally directed effort to counteract it. To have escaped contagion under the circumstances would have been miraculous. It is only to be wondered at that so few died.
Number of convicts admitted on deck
Forming the convicts into these small divisions, and admitting but one on the deck at a time, seems to embrace a twofold intention, the safety of the ship and the health of the Convicts. That the first part of this intention might be effected by other means remains to be shewn; but that the second, is entirely defeated by its own operation will require but little proof.
Safety of ships not endangered by convicts on deck
Practicability of admitting all convicts on deck
It will be taken for granted that what had been once done can be done again. It is mentioned above that the convicts, however badly managed in other respects, were at least on deck all at once every Sunday, when the weather and the duties of the ship would admit, in order to attend Divine Service, and during the time they were fumigating the ship for the first time six weeks. It is also stated those of the Three Bees were all on the deck together every day while in Rio Janeiro. Here are 300 convicts in the former and 200 in the latter all on deck at once, yet nothing was attempted to endanger the safety of the ships. Had this been practised every day on board those three ill fated ships, there would have been no occasion for these observations. There would have been but little scurvy, fever or dysentery. To effect this object, the plan is simple and easy of execution. It only requires to put no more convicts on board each transport than the deck is capable of holding, to choose such time of the day when the Officers and Ship's company shall be most disengaged; to place the guard in a state of preparation and in the most favourable position to command the deck, in case of any attempt to gain possession of the ship.
The custom of admitting 20, 30 or 50 of the convicts on the deck at a time in rotation is on the principle of benefiting the health of each individual, and of guarding the whole against contagion. It might, perhaps, be wrong to assert that the prisoners individually receive no benefit from the very short time they are on the deck, but it might be easily proved that the advantage is not so great as is usually supposed.
Evils of the constant occupation of the prison
Granting that the whole 2, or 300 men shall have been on the deck by 30 or 50 at a time during the day, what does this effect as to the state of the prison? Does it cause a thorough change of air? That it neither does, or can, requires no proof. If it falls short of this, it is of no utility. Disease will be as infallibly generated by 165 persons constantly remaining in the Prison as if the whole had remained there.
Proposal for the daily cleansing and fumigation of the prison
To effect a complete renovation of air in the Prison, and to prevent the generation of contagion, let the whole of the prisoners with their bedding be taken on deck daily when admissible, and detained there some time; in the mean time, let the prison be well cleaned and fumigated, And that not in the common manner of performing this operation, but let the Hatchways, Ports and Scuttles, fore and aft, be shut in and covered down, in order that the fumigation be rendered as perfect and general as possible. When this shall have gone on a sufficient length of time, let the Hatchways Ports and Scuttles be thrown open, let fires be lighted in the prison, and, when the whole shall have been thoroughly aired and dried, the convicts with their bedding may be sent below. Keeping in mind that the longer they are on the deck in a body, the more certain the prevention of contagion. In addition to this, the prison and hospital ought to be white washed every two or three weeks with quicklime. I would earnestly contend for the diffusion of the Nitric or Muriatic Acid, in the form of gas, in the peculiar case of a transport carrying prisoners, altho' I might under other circumstances concur in opinion with the intelligent and spirited author, who says that " the long catalogue of fever exorcisms (from the explosive devils that used to render the between decks of our ships so many miniature representations of Tartarus, down to the more elegant Antitoimic farce of Oxymuriatic incantation) is now superseded by the simple application of three elements that are always at hand, Water, Air, Fire. And thus what was decided in the Senate to be deserving of a National reward is known in the Cockpit to be the veriest phantom of imagination."
Reasons for absence of disease on female convict ships
On what principle is it to be accounted for that not one of the transports, employed exclusively in bringing out female convicts, has had a contagious disease among them? the answer is obvious. From the women, there is nothing to apprehend with regard to the safety of the ship; they have therefore unrestrained access to the deck, and are generally on it, so that a perfect renovation of the air of their prison is constantly taking place. On this principle, and on this alone, is the absence of contagion to be accounted for.
Incompetency of most transport surgeons
It becomes necessary to make a few observations respecting the Medical men, who are appointed to take care of the health of the convicts on their passage. Those, who have been hitherto appointed, have been either students from the lecture room, or men, who had failed in the respective lines of their profession. If from the first class, they are without experience, and, however they may be fraught with the instructions conveyed in the various lectures they have attended, or with the contents of the numerous volumes they have read, they are but ill qualified to take charge of the health of two or three hundred men about to undertake a long voyage, through various climates, and under peculiarly distressing circumstances, without a sense of conscious rectitude to support them, dissatisfied with the past, repining at the present and apprehensive of the future, deprived of the power of enjoying the air and exercise, etc. necessary to maintain the due equilibrium of temper and spirits so essential to the well being of man. If from the second, it but too frequently happens that either from the cause or consequence of their failure, they totally devote themselves to inebriety.
Objections to surgeons being subordinate to transport captain
How little capable, either the one or the other is for this important trust, is too self evident to require demonstration. Besides they are employed by the owners of the ships and placed immediately under the command of the Masters of the transports, who, with few exceptions, having little claim to education, refined feeling, or even common decency, generally treat their Surgeons as they do their apprentices and men with rudeness and brutality. Incapable of appreciating the value of learning, and despising all knowledge beyond what they themselves possess, they avail themselves of every opportunity to insult and mortify their Surgeons. Under this species of treatment, with no means of redress during a long voyage, the mind becomes paralysed, they view their situation with disgust, and, if they have the means, should they not have been so before, they soon become confirmed drunkards. Hence their duty is neglected, and the poor convicts become the unhappy victims of the Captain's brutality and the Surgeon's weakness, want of skill or drunkenness.
That this picture is not surcharged, the records of the colony will furnish but too many proofs. Yet, at the same time, it is but fair and just to observe that, altho' this is by much too it frequent, it is not so general but that there is now and then an exception.
Proposal for appointment of naval surgeons for duty on transports
With a view therefore of providing skilful and approved Medical Men for this service, it might not perhaps be deemed improper to suggest that the Surgeons ought to be appointed by the Government, selected from the Surgeons in the Navy - Men of abilities, who have been accustomed to sea practice, who know what is due to themselves as Men, and as Officers with full power to exercise their judgment, without being liable to the control of the Masters of the transports.
Proposed appointment of an assistant surgeon
Previous to dismissing this part of my subject, it may be right to observe that, as disease has so often made its appearance among the convicts during the voyage, and as it pays no more respect to the Surgeon than to any other person, he is therefore equally liable to become the victim of contagion; in which event the ship is without any medical assistance. And indeed if there be much sickness and the Surgeon be fortunate enough to escape, the duty in attending upon so many is too arduous and difficult for any one man to perform, as it ought to be done. I should therefore most strenuously recommend that an assistant Surgeon be also provided.
Reasons for appointment of an agent for transports on each ship
As it has sometimes happened that those concerned in bringing out the convicts, regardless of the principles of honesty and humanity, and availing themselves of the unlimited power with which they are invested, have withheld a portion of the rations and articles of comfort from the convicts, and appropriated them to their own use; instances of which are hinted at above. I trust it will not be conceived impertinent to recommend that an Agent for transports be sent out in every ship. He might be selected from the Navy Surgeons, combining the offices of Principal Medical Officer and Agent in his own person. An appointment of this nature, filled by a person duly qualified promises to be attended with incalculable advantage and that too at a trifling increase of expense.
Summary of proposed reforms for management of convicts on transport ships
Having thus taken an excursive, though I trust not useless view of the subject, I shall beg leave to conclude by recapitulating the principle results of this enquiry, and most respectfully at the same time most strenuously, recommending them to Your Excellency's Consideration;
1 That more warm clothing be provided for the winter passage.
2 That more regard be directed towards personal cleanliness, by facilitating the means of washing and cleaning their persons and dress.
3 That cold affusion be employed as largely as possible.
4 That Masters of transports be prohibited purchasing or exchanging, unless by direct instructions from the Transport Board, any part of the rations of the convicts.
5 That a different distribution, or rather an increase of the quantity of the convicts' wine, be provided for.
6 That no reduction, unless under peculiar circumstances, of the regulated allowance of water be suffered.
7 That no part of their rations or articles of comfort be surreptitiously or fraudulently withheld.
8 That, in Order to prevent the generation of contagion, it is absolutely necessary that the convicts with their bedding should be admitted every day, when the weather will permit, on the deck for a certain time, the longer the better.
That the prison and hospital be regularly cleaned and fumigated with the Nitric or Muriatic Acid in a gaseous state; that the fumigation be as perfect, and as general, over the ship as possible, well airing and drying the prison before the Convicts are sent below.
10. That, for the better preservation of the health of the convicts, more eligible Medical Attendants, and on a different establishment be provided.
11 That an Agent for Transports be sent out, in whose person might be combined the two Offices of Agent and principal Medical Officer, invested with powers to cause the necessary regulations to be carried into effect.
I very much regret that time will not permit me to correct these observations. They are written without method or attention to arrangement or style, and as your Excellency is aware of the very short time 1 have had to prepare this paper, owing to the pressure of professional business, I trust that every allowance will be made for the imperfect state in which it meets Your Excellency's eye. If however any thing contained herein should be the means of throwing any additional light on the management of the convicts, and, by giving more effect to the benevolent intentions of His Majesty's Government, of ameliorating their condition, or be the means of saving the life of a single individual, I shall feel more than amply compensated for any pains I have bestowed on the subject.
I have etc
William Redfern, Assistant Surgeon, N.S.W.
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